Effects of Environmental Pollution

Air Pollution
Air pollution idensity is about 30,000 per square kilometre, more than in Manhattan in New York City (PRIDE, 1994)
The greatest industry concentrations in Cairo are in the Helwan area to the South and Shoubra El-Kheima to the North. s mainly a problem of large cities. In Egypt, this problem is mainly related to Cairo. Estimated population of Greater Cairo range from about 10-16 million people (mean 12 million). Average population


Prevailing winds from the North, most of the year blow pollutants from the industrial zone in Shoubra El-Kheima directly into the city. Current ambient concentrations for all major air pollutants in Cairo approach or exceed levels that threaten public health. Table 1 show the Concentrations of Air Pollutants in Cairo.
Table 1: Concentrations of Air Pollutants in Cairo.
Pollutant Concentration (ug/m3) U.S. Standard (ug/m3)
Sulphur Dioxide 40-156 annual mean 80 annual mean
Particulate Matter 349-857 annual mean 75 annual mean
Nitrogen Oxides 90-750 hourly means 100 annual mean
Carbon Monoxide 1,000-18,000 hourly means 40,000 hourly mean
Lead 0.5-10 annual mean 1.5 quarterly mean
Ozone 100-200+ hourly maximum 235 hourly maximum

Health Hazards from Air Pollution
In General, although levels of several air pollutants often exceed health standards, they do not do so by as much as particulate matter (PM) (Vida supra). Non-PM air pollutants also generally have less severe health effects and, at levels prevailing in Cairo, often affect only small, particularly sensitive groups (e.g. asthmatics). Sulphur Dioxide, despite the fact that it exceeds U.S. health-based standards, it has few adverse general health hazards for the population.
Particulate matter (PM) Vida supra
Nitrogen Oxides (Nox) irritates mucous membranes, aggravates pre-existing respiratory illness (asthma), causes coughs, headaches, and shortness of breath.
Minimal health problems are expected in the general population including women.
Lead (Vida supra)
Ozone is a respiratory irritant that impairs lung function and leads to lower respiratory symptoms such as cough and chest discomfort. It is significantly hazardous in individuals having pre-existing respiratory conditions such as asthmatics, may increase the likelihood of chronic lung injury, fibrosis, chronic bronchitis and heightened susceptibility to respiratory infections.
Pollutants from cooking stoves (CO, Nox and particulate) are not uncommon especially in poorer communities in Egypt and rural areas deploying kerosene appliances. In some instances, concentration of such substances may exceed outdoor ambient concentrations. Apart from fire hazards such pollutants may cause respiratory irritation, eye infections, neonatal deaths and low birth weight babies. Biological contaminants such as moulds, mites and allergens as well as household toxins, particularly pesticide sprays may cause serious health hazards. U.S. and other studies have suggested that ETS may have carcinogenic compounds (PRIDE, 1994).
Drinking Water Contamination by Chemicals
Despite its upstream course of more than 6,000 KM, the Nile is relatively unpolluted when it reaches Cairo. Cairo dispenses 2-3 million cubic meters of domestic sewage and 0.2 million cubic meters of industrial effluents generated daily. The large flow of water in the Nile (daily flow of 80-150 million cubic meters) provides extensive dilution of pollutants.
After treatment and chlorinated, the drinking water generated from the 16 water treatment plants in Cairo is nearly always clean. The negative pressure generated increases the likelihood of infiltration of ground water and sewage into the pipes. Moreover, the tanks are open for contamination by atmospheric depositions, birds and animals.
Chlorine, carcinogenic pesticides, heavy metals especially lead have all been detected in varying levels in our drinking water.
Reproductive Health Hazards from drinking water
There were no confirmed evidence of reproductive health hazards from drinking water chemicals. In a U.S. based study, chlorine and trihalomethane (THM) was associated to non statistically significant increase in cases of miscarriage (in high concentrations) (Savitz et al., 1995) . Another American study suggested, although not confirmed, excess spontaneous abortions rates and birth defect in a single incidence of solvent contamination of drinking water in a certain area in California (Wrensch et al., 1990) .
In Cairo, however, the main health hazard from drinking water is lead contamination. Samples from treatment plants revealed lead levels of 6 ug/l. This surprising high level of lead in drinking water is considered the MAJOR source of lead contamination for humans living in Cairo and major Egyptian cities and constitutes a major health threat for Egyptian (Cairo residents) including pregnant women (Vida supra). The source of such alarming chemical contamination needs further clarification.
In addition, microbiological contamination of drinking water in some suburban areas and rural communities in Egypt is not to be neglected. Potent water supplies are still not available in a major sector of non-urban areas of Egypt including a large section of Egyptian population (CAPMAS, 1993).
Chemical Exposure and Reproductive Health

A growing body of scientific evidence implicates occupational chemical exposures in the aetiology of human adverse reproductive outcome. The major threat in developing countries, including Egypt, is the lack of knowledge in handling those chemicals ( Paul and Himmelstein, 1988). In a large study including 10,879 pregnant women exposed to various household and agricultural chemicals, it was found that there exists a strong association of congenital malformations with chemical exposure (Gibson et al., 1983) In another study including women who worked as factory workers in chemical industry suggested high rate of low birth weight and short gestation length and infant death (Kallsen and Landgren, 1994) . Developmental disorders include not only malformations visible at birth, but also spontaneous abortions, foetal death and functional deficits (Peters, 1993) . Spermatogenic count deterioration, loss of sperm motility, teratospermia, loss of libido have all been related to males exposed to chemicals (e.g. solvents). Moreover, increased rates of abortion, stillbirth, low birth weight, and birth defects and childhood malignancy in offspring has all been recorded in wives of males working in chemical industries (Tas et al., 1996)

Pesticides Exposure and Reproductive Health
Organochlorines including endrin, dieldrin, lindane, and DDT were the most widely used pesticides in Egypt through the early 1980's (Abdel Gawaad, 1989) . The increasing use of household and agricultural pesticides still constitute a major health threat especially in injudicious use. Pesticide food contamination may be a major health threat to the general population in Egypt. Pesticides may applied to crops after harvest (DDT) to prevent spoilage during transport and storage. Pesticides may even appear in crops to which they were not applied when irrigation water that has been contaminated by upstream pesticide use is re-used for additional crops.


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Environmental Health & Safety

Purpose:
The purpose of this procedure is to define and document the process and primary agenda of issues to be included in the "EMS Management Review" meetings for WSU.
The "EMS Management Review" process is intended to provide a forum for discussion and improvement of the EMS. At least once a year, WSU's top environmental management shall review the EMS to ensure its continuing suitability, adequacy and effectiveness. The management review process shall ensure that the necessary information is collected to allow management to carry out this evaluation. The review shall be documented.
The management review shall address the possible need for changes to policy, objectives and other elements of the environmental management system, in light of environmental management system audit results, changing circumstances and the commitment to continual improvement.
Procedure:
The Director of EH&S is responsible for scheduling and conducting a minimum of one "EMS Management Review" meeting a year. This meeting must be conducted between the Director of EH&S and the Vice President of Business Affairs. The Director of EH&S needs to provide following information for the meeting:
Progress at meeting objectives and targets
Any changes to objectives and targets
Any changes to Aspect list
Summary results of internal audit and external audits conducted since the last "EMS Management Review" meeting
Resource use and resource needs
Summary of benefits of EMS system versus costs of the system
At a minimum, each "EMS Management Review" meeting will consider the following:
The suitability, adequacy and effectiveness of the Environmental Policy
The suitability, adequacy and effectiveness of the environmental objectives (as well as WSU's current status against these objectives)
The overall suitability, adequacy and effectiveness of the EMS
The results of action items from the previous "EMS Management Review" meeting
Recommended changes to the EMS to ensure continual improvement
Output from the meeting:
Meeting minutes and list of attendees
Summary of key issues discussed
Summary of decisions including any: action plan changes to strategic plan, changes to procedures and policy, budget and resource reallocation, changes to objective and targets, and action items arising from the meeting
Feedback to faculty, staff, students and public: A copy of the meeting minutes will be distributed to attendees and any individuals assigned action items.


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WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE?

Environmental chemistry., it isimportant to have some appreciation of environmental science as a whole.Environmental science in its broadest sense is the science of the complexinteractions that occur among the terrestrial, atmospheric, aquatic, living, andanthropological environments. biology, ecology, sociology, and government,

environmental science will be defined as the study of the earth, air, water, and living environments, and the effects of technology thereon. To a significant degree, environmental science has evolved Carry out their life cycles. A time has evolved into ecology, the study of environmental factors that affect organisms and how organisms interact with these factors and with each other. Affected irreversibly by technology. applied intelligently by those knowledgeable of environmental science, it can serve,rather than damage, this Earth upon which all living beings depend for their welfareand existence.
The Environment
Air, water, earth, life, and technology are strongly interconnected
Traditionally, environmental science has been divided among the study of the
atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the geosphere, and the biosphere. The atmosphere is
the thin layer of gases that cover Earth’s surface. of gases, the atmosphere moderates Earth’s temperature, absorbs energy and damaging
ultraviolet radiation from the sun, transports energy away from equatorial
regions, and serves as a pathway for vapor-phase movement of water in the hydrologic
cycle. The hydrosphere contains Earth’s water. Over 97% of Earth’s water is
only a relatively small percentage of the total water on Earth is actually involved
with terrestrial, atmospheric, and biological processes. Exclusive of seawater, the
water that circulates through environmental processes and cycles occurs in the
atmosphere, underground as groundwater, and as surface water in streams, rivers,
lakes, ponds, and reservoirs. The geosphere consists of the solid earth, including
soil, which supports most plant life. hydrosphere, and living things is the solid lithosphere. The lithosphere varies fromthe other spheres of the environment are concerned is its thin outer skin composedlargely of lighter silicate-based minerals and called the crust. All living entities on
Earth compose the biosphere. Living organisms and the aspects of the environment
pertaining directly to them are called biotic, and other portions of the environment
are abiotic.To a large extent, the strong interactions among living organisms and the various
spheres of the abiotic environment are best described by cycles of matter that
involve biological, chemical, and geological processes and phenomena. Such cycles
are called biogeochemical cycles,

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REQUIREMENTS OF ISO 14001

imperatives adjunctly ISO 14001adhere an acquiescent attendantly the standard’s demands. A artful check attendantly the acceptedaccount Quality Management movement, as follows


PLAN4.2 Policy4.3 PlanningDO4.4 Implementation and OperationCHECK4.5 Checking and Corrective ActionIMPROVE4.6 Management ReviewWithin these five elements are 17 sub-elements stating the various requirements?4.2 Policy4.3 Planning4.3.1 Environmental Aspects4.3.2 Legal and Other Requirements4.3.3 Objectives and Targets4.4.4 Environmental Management Programs4.4 Implementation and Operation4.4.1 Structure and Responsibility4.4.2 Training Awareness and Competence4.4.3 Communications4.4.4 EMS Documentation4.4.5 Document Control4.4.6 Operation Control4.4.7 Emergency Planning and Response4.5 Checking and Corrective Action4.5.1 Monitoring and Measurement4.5.2 Nonconformance, Corrective, and Preventive Action4.5.3 Records4.5.4 EMS Audit4.6 Management ReviewWithin these 17 sub-elements are all of the requirements, or “shells”, necessary toConform to ISO 14001. Recognizing the requirements. As a matter of fact, no auditor should embark on an auditbelow we briefly summarize the key points of the sub-elements. during an audit.Detailed Section by Section Summary4.2 PolicyISO 14001 requires that the organization have a policy statement to drive the EMS.There is no expectation that specific details be noted in the policy. prevention of pollution”. The policy must be clearly endorsed by top management andbe available to the public and employees. awareness is more proactive. Section 4.2 of ISO 14001 lists the other requirements of thepolicy.4.3.1 Environmental AspectsThis element requires a procedure that not only identifies the aspects and impacts, butISO 14001 does not prescribe what aspects should be significant, or even how todetermine significance. However, it is expected the organization will develop a4.3.2 Legal and Other RequirementsThis is a requirement for a procedure that explains how the organization obtainsinformation regarding its legal and other requirements, and makes that informationknown to key functions. This is not the assessment or compliance audit requirement, butrather a more up front determination of requirements.4.3.3 Objectives and TargetsThere is no requirement for a procedure in this element, only that objectives and targetsbe documented. Objectives, such as legal requirements and prevention of pollution. easiest to develop a procedure anyway for this element to be able to verify these4.3.4 Environmental Management Programs (EMP)EMPs are the detailed plans and programs explaining how the objectives and targets willbe accomplished. These EMPs usually note responsible personnel, milestones and dates,and measurements of success. Noting monitoring and measurement parameters directlyin the EMP facilitates conforming to 4.5.1 on Monitoring and Measurement discussed4.4.1 Structure and ResponsibilityISO 14001 requires that the relevant management and accountability structure be definedin this element. organization must denote the Management Representative who is responsible to overseethe EMS and report to management on its operation.4.4.2 Training Awareness and CompetenceThe key point in this element is that personnel must receive applicable training regardingthe EMS. Specific requirements are itemized in ISO 14001, and include general,company-wide items such as knowing the policy, to more function-specific training onaspects and emergency response. An organization usually responds to this element with atraining matrix, cross-referencing to training materials and records.4.4.3 CommunicationsProcedures are required for both internal and external communications. Note that ISOdegree of openness and disclosure of information. Whatever the decision in terms ofdisclosure, that decision process must be recorded.4.4.4 EMS DocumentationThis requirement is simply that the organization has documented the system in eitherelectronic or paper form such that it addresses the elements of the standard and providesdirection to related documentation. Not all ISO 14001-required procedures need to bedocumented, as long as the system requirements can be verified.4.4.5 Document Control.Procedures are required to control documents, such as system procedures and workinstructions, and to ensure that current versions are distributed and obsolete versions areremoved from the system.4.4.6 Operational ControlThis element is the one which connects the EMS with the organization as a whole. the critical functions related to significant aspects and objectives and targets are identifiedand procedures and work instructions created to ensure proper execution of activities.Requirements for communicating applicable system requirements to contractors are alsoaddressed.4.4.7 Emergency Planning and ResponseAlthough typically addressed through conventional emergency response plans, thiselement also requires that a process exist for identifying the potential emergencies, inaddition to planning and mitigating them. impacts are assessed, is appropriate. 4.5.1 Monitoring and MeasurementProcedures are required describing how the organization will monitor and measure keyparameters of operations. These parameters relate to the significant aspects, objectivesand targets and legal and regulatory compliance. In order to properly manage the system,Responses tothis element usually cross reference to many other specific procedures and workinstructions describing measurement and equipment calibration. 4.5.2 Nonconformance, Corrective, and Preventive ActionThis element requires procedures for acting on nonconformances identified in the system,including corrective and preventive action. audits, monitoring and measurement, and communications. system flaws. Typically, Corrective Action Report (CAR) forms are the norm, noting thenonconformance, the suggested fix, and closure of the action when completed. Note thatthis requirement does not imply in any way that the party identifying the nonconformance4.5.3 RecordsRecords are expected to exist to serve as verification of the system operating. Forexample, records include audit reports and training records. Unlike controlleddocuments, records are “once and done” documents, resulting from the execution of someprocess or procedure. Procedures in this element are required for the maintenance ofrecords.4.5.4 EMS AuditsISO 14001 requires that the system provide for internal audits. This procedures(s) willinclude methodologies, schedules, and processes to conduct the audits. Interestingly, theEMS audit will in essence, audit the audit process itself!4.6 Management ReviewThis element requires that periodically, top management will review the EMS to ensure itis operating as planned. If not, resources must be provided for corrective action. Forprovide for improvement programs. element, although records of agendas, attendance, and agreed upon action items aremaintained as verification

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Air Pollution

Every day, the average person inhales about 20,000 liters of air. Air pollution includes all contaminants found in the atmosphere. Air pollution can be found both outdoors and indoors. Pollutants can be trapped inside buildings, causing indoor pollution that lasts for a long time.

The sources of air pollution are both natural and human-based. Air pollution has been a problem throughout history. Even in Ancient Rome people complained about smoke put into the atmosphere.
The effects of air pollution are diverse and numerous. Air pollution can have serious consequences for the health of human beings, and also severely affects natural ecosystems.
Because it is located in the atmosphere, air pollution is able to travel easily. As a result, air pollution is a global problem and has been the subject of global cooperation and conflict.
Some areas now suffer more than others from air pollution. Cities with large numbers of automobiles or those that use great quantities of coal often suffer most severely from problems of air pollution.

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Air Pollution levels measured in Egypt

EEAA/EIMP operates presently about 40 Measurement sites for air pollution in Egypt. Measurements
have occasionally recorded air pollution levels
exceeding the Air Quality Limit values as given by
Environmental Law no. 4 for Egypt. Cairo area also during the Autumn 1999 experienced
several air pollution episodes with air pollution
levels reaching very high concentrations due
different sources and adverse weather conditions

The air pollution problem in Egypt
The main air pollution problem in Egypt is the level of suspended particles.Particles in ambient air are measured as.
♦ Total suspended particles (TSP),
♦ Particles less than 10 micrometer in diameter (PM10),
♦ Black smoke (BS, soot) and
♦ Dust fall.
The measured concentrations often ranged from 6 to 8 times the Air Quality Environmental Law no. 4 for Egypt. It should be noted that the natural background level of dust in the atmosphere
higher than the Air Quality Limit level, due to the dry climate, windy conditions with re- uspended dust and large surrounding dessert areas. exceed AQL levels in urban areas and
close to industrial sources. The levels of NO2 seldom exceeded the AQL sources for pollution in urban areas.

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Environmental management systems - Requirements with guidance for use

This International Standard specifies requirements for an environmental management system, to enable an organization to develop a policy and objectives taking into account legal requirements and information about significant environmental aspects. It applies to those environmental aspects which the organization can control and those which It can influence.
This International Standard is applicable to any organization that wishes to:

a) implement, maintain and improve an environmental management system;
- seeking certification/registration of its environmental management system by an external organization.
All the requirements in this International Standard are intended to be incorporated into any environmental management system. 2 Normative references

Terms and definitions

continual improvement
recurring process of enhancing the environmental management system (3.6) in order to achieve improvements in overall environmental performance (3.9) consistent with the organization’s (3.13) environmental policy (3.10)

document environment
environmental aspect
NOTE A significant environmental aspect has or can have a significant environmental impact (3.6).


environmental impact
any change to the environment (3.3), whether adverse or beneficial, wholly or partially resulting from an organization’s (3.13) environmental aspects (3.4)
3.7
environmental management system
part of an organization’s (3.13) management system used to develop and implement its environmental policy (3.10) and manage its interaction(s) with the environment (3.3)

achieve those objectives

NOTE 2 A management system includes organizational structure, planning activities, responsibilities, practices, procedures (3.15), processes and resources

3.8
environmental management system audit
systematic, independent and documented process for obtaining audit evidence and evaluating it objectively to determine the extent to which the environmental management system) audit criteria set by the organization
environmental objective
overall environmental goal, consistent with the environmental policy (3.10), that an organization (3.13) sets itself to achieve

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