Effects of Environmental Pollution

Air Pollution
Air pollution idensity is about 30,000 per square kilometre, more than in Manhattan in New York City (PRIDE, 1994)
The greatest industry concentrations in Cairo are in the Helwan area to the South and Shoubra El-Kheima to the North. s mainly a problem of large cities. In Egypt, this problem is mainly related to Cairo. Estimated population of Greater Cairo range from about 10-16 million people (mean 12 million). Average population


Prevailing winds from the North, most of the year blow pollutants from the industrial zone in Shoubra El-Kheima directly into the city. Current ambient concentrations for all major air pollutants in Cairo approach or exceed levels that threaten public health. Table 1 show the Concentrations of Air Pollutants in Cairo.
Table 1: Concentrations of Air Pollutants in Cairo.
Pollutant Concentration (ug/m3) U.S. Standard (ug/m3)
Sulphur Dioxide 40-156 annual mean 80 annual mean
Particulate Matter 349-857 annual mean 75 annual mean
Nitrogen Oxides 90-750 hourly means 100 annual mean
Carbon Monoxide 1,000-18,000 hourly means 40,000 hourly mean
Lead 0.5-10 annual mean 1.5 quarterly mean
Ozone 100-200+ hourly maximum 235 hourly maximum

Health Hazards from Air Pollution
In General, although levels of several air pollutants often exceed health standards, they do not do so by as much as particulate matter (PM) (Vida supra). Non-PM air pollutants also generally have less severe health effects and, at levels prevailing in Cairo, often affect only small, particularly sensitive groups (e.g. asthmatics). Sulphur Dioxide, despite the fact that it exceeds U.S. health-based standards, it has few adverse general health hazards for the population.
Particulate matter (PM) Vida supra
Nitrogen Oxides (Nox) irritates mucous membranes, aggravates pre-existing respiratory illness (asthma), causes coughs, headaches, and shortness of breath.
Minimal health problems are expected in the general population including women.
Lead (Vida supra)
Ozone is a respiratory irritant that impairs lung function and leads to lower respiratory symptoms such as cough and chest discomfort. It is significantly hazardous in individuals having pre-existing respiratory conditions such as asthmatics, may increase the likelihood of chronic lung injury, fibrosis, chronic bronchitis and heightened susceptibility to respiratory infections.
Pollutants from cooking stoves (CO, Nox and particulate) are not uncommon especially in poorer communities in Egypt and rural areas deploying kerosene appliances. In some instances, concentration of such substances may exceed outdoor ambient concentrations. Apart from fire hazards such pollutants may cause respiratory irritation, eye infections, neonatal deaths and low birth weight babies. Biological contaminants such as moulds, mites and allergens as well as household toxins, particularly pesticide sprays may cause serious health hazards. U.S. and other studies have suggested that ETS may have carcinogenic compounds (PRIDE, 1994).
Drinking Water Contamination by Chemicals
Despite its upstream course of more than 6,000 KM, the Nile is relatively unpolluted when it reaches Cairo. Cairo dispenses 2-3 million cubic meters of domestic sewage and 0.2 million cubic meters of industrial effluents generated daily. The large flow of water in the Nile (daily flow of 80-150 million cubic meters) provides extensive dilution of pollutants.
After treatment and chlorinated, the drinking water generated from the 16 water treatment plants in Cairo is nearly always clean. The negative pressure generated increases the likelihood of infiltration of ground water and sewage into the pipes. Moreover, the tanks are open for contamination by atmospheric depositions, birds and animals.
Chlorine, carcinogenic pesticides, heavy metals especially lead have all been detected in varying levels in our drinking water.
Reproductive Health Hazards from drinking water
There were no confirmed evidence of reproductive health hazards from drinking water chemicals. In a U.S. based study, chlorine and trihalomethane (THM) was associated to non statistically significant increase in cases of miscarriage (in high concentrations) (Savitz et al., 1995) . Another American study suggested, although not confirmed, excess spontaneous abortions rates and birth defect in a single incidence of solvent contamination of drinking water in a certain area in California (Wrensch et al., 1990) .
In Cairo, however, the main health hazard from drinking water is lead contamination. Samples from treatment plants revealed lead levels of 6 ug/l. This surprising high level of lead in drinking water is considered the MAJOR source of lead contamination for humans living in Cairo and major Egyptian cities and constitutes a major health threat for Egyptian (Cairo residents) including pregnant women (Vida supra). The source of such alarming chemical contamination needs further clarification.
In addition, microbiological contamination of drinking water in some suburban areas and rural communities in Egypt is not to be neglected. Potent water supplies are still not available in a major sector of non-urban areas of Egypt including a large section of Egyptian population (CAPMAS, 1993).
Chemical Exposure and Reproductive Health

A growing body of scientific evidence implicates occupational chemical exposures in the aetiology of human adverse reproductive outcome. The major threat in developing countries, including Egypt, is the lack of knowledge in handling those chemicals ( Paul and Himmelstein, 1988). In a large study including 10,879 pregnant women exposed to various household and agricultural chemicals, it was found that there exists a strong association of congenital malformations with chemical exposure (Gibson et al., 1983) In another study including women who worked as factory workers in chemical industry suggested high rate of low birth weight and short gestation length and infant death (Kallsen and Landgren, 1994) . Developmental disorders include not only malformations visible at birth, but also spontaneous abortions, foetal death and functional deficits (Peters, 1993) . Spermatogenic count deterioration, loss of sperm motility, teratospermia, loss of libido have all been related to males exposed to chemicals (e.g. solvents). Moreover, increased rates of abortion, stillbirth, low birth weight, and birth defects and childhood malignancy in offspring has all been recorded in wives of males working in chemical industries (Tas et al., 1996)

Pesticides Exposure and Reproductive Health
Organochlorines including endrin, dieldrin, lindane, and DDT were the most widely used pesticides in Egypt through the early 1980's (Abdel Gawaad, 1989) . The increasing use of household and agricultural pesticides still constitute a major health threat especially in injudicious use. Pesticide food contamination may be a major health threat to the general population in Egypt. Pesticides may applied to crops after harvest (DDT) to prevent spoilage during transport and storage. Pesticides may even appear in crops to which they were not applied when irrigation water that has been contaminated by upstream pesticide use is re-used for additional crops.